Title: Anatomy / part2

Q: upper airways - parts
A: The upper airways consist of the following parts:
- nasal cavity (cartilaginous)
- oral cavity
- pharynx (nasopharynx = green, oropharynx = puprle, laryngopharnx = yellow)
- nasal septum (separating the sides of the nose)
- respiratory epithelium: makes sure no big or small particles come into the nose
- nasal concha/turbinate (superior, medial and inferior on both sides) inside the
- nasal cavity: maximize the surface of nasal cavity to warm up the air and moist it (normal breathing through nose and NOT the mouth)
- olfactory region: superior to nasal septum, sense of smell

Q: function of sinus
A: The functions of the sinus in the nasal cavity is to moisten and warm up the air. It also makes the skull lighter.

Q: pharnyx muscle types
A: levatores, contstrictors.

Q: tonsils
A: Waldeyers tonsillar ring (palatal tonsil, lingual tonsil, tubal tonsil)

Q: infants upper airways
A: Infants are able to drink AND breath at the same time (epiglottis is bigger in proportion to the rest than in adults)

Q: lower airways - parts
A: larynx: thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, arytenoid cartilag, epiglottis (lots of muscles to produce sounds)
trachea: starts at 6th/7th cervical vertebra, 12 cm, division (bifurcation)
at level of 4th thoracal vertebra into the two main bronchi
bronchia (mainly in the lungs)
voice box – only 1 opener
innervation – mainly recurrent laryngeal
The hyoid bone keeps all the airways open and is the only bone, that is not connected to another bone via a joint

Q: Which surgery would endanger the recurrent laryngeal nerve?
A: (the one that makes it possible to breath) Answer: Thyroid surgery

Q: lower airways - open
A: Lower airways all have a structure, keeping them open all the time, otherwise they would collapse and no movement of air would be possible.
The angulation on left and right bronchius is different, because of heart and because of different resistances on both sides?

Q: lung
A: The bronchus can be divided into 2 main bronchi, lobal bronchi, segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles and alveoles.
The lung tissue is mainly located in lower airways. The place of the heart has impact on number of lung lobes (2 in left side and 3 in right side).
Both lung parts (left and right) are in segments and have per definition both 10, but actually the left side has only 9. Most of lung tissue is pneumocyte type 1 (95%), other 5% are pneumocyte type 2 (responsible for production of something that makes the aviolis not collapse)
Lungs are organ, that develop the last because you don't need it. If you are born to early you might have problems with lungs and lung development

Q: breathing mechanism
A: expansion of lung in thorax
Between red and purple (visceral and parietal pleura) there is NO air but fluid to allow for movement. If air would get in between, the lungs would collapse.
Breathing only works, if system is stable (no broken ribs, muscles working, diaphragm, phrenic nerve, intact sternum). The diameter and height of upper body is changed when breathing in.

Q: When or in which person exists a high risk of developing an
internal pneumothorax?
A: Tall skinny people

Q: blood
A: Blood cells originate from bone marrow, further differentiation depending on different cell types. In the blood, antibodies can be found which can recognize antigens which triggers an immune reaction of the immune system. If it gets triggered by antigens that are already inside of the body, we call it autoimmune reaction.
- 7-8% of total body weight→ 5-6 liters (not enough to activate all parts of the body at once) The time needed to circulate all the blood once through the body is around 1 minute.
- 80% is systemic circulation, 20% pulmonary circulation
The blood consists of approx. 45% blood cells, 55% blood plasma

Q: bloodcells - type + description
A: Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
no nucleus, life duration 120 days
hemoglobin / hematocrit
disasembly in spleen and liver
5,3 Mio - 4,6 Mio /µl
White blood cells (leukocytes)
4000 - 8000 /µl
granulocytes (neutrophilic, basophilic, eosinophilic, they are important for a non specific immune reaction)
lymphocytes (T (store information of prior infection), B, Th)
monocytes / macrophages
Platelets (thrombocytes)
5-10 days
no nucleus
150.000-350.000/µl

Q: blood types
A: There are 4 blood types:
A  44%
0 42%
B 10%
AB 4%
Rhesus factor: positive (85%) vs. negative (15%)
 Rhesus incompatibility in pregnant women. Danger for second child.
It always depends on the surface marker, if a body accepts a blood transfusion or not.

Q: lymphatic system - general
A: The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, nodes, capillaries, and organs that helps maintain fluid balance, support immune function, and absorb dietary fats.
It collects excess fluid (lymph) from tissues and returns it to the bloodstream, preventing swelling (edema).
Lymph nodes filter harmful substances and house immune cells that fight infections.

Q: lymphatic system - organs
A: Key organs include the spleen (filters blood and supports immunity), thymus (matures T-cells), and tonsils (trap pathogens).
The system lacks a pump like the heart, relying on muscle movement and
breathing to circulate lymph.
1.  Primary lymphatic organs (thymus, bone marrow)
2. secondary lymphatic organs (lymph nodes, spleen, lymph follicles in mucosa– eg. tonsils, Peyer plaques)
Lymph nodes are especially important to localize problems inside of the body.

Q: endocrine system - control body
A: There are two methods that parts of our body (organs) control other parts. Nerves (very fast, short duration) and hormones (slower, long duration).
The main centre of control of the endocrine system is the hypothalamus and hypophysis (partially). They control everything through a feedback-mechanism.

Q: endocrine system - hypophysis
A: - anterior lobe → non-glandotropic hormones (effector hormones) and glandotropic hormones (control hormones, stimulate or inhibit an other gland)
- posterior lobe → oxytocin (important during birth, labour inducing), vasopressin (regulates blood pressure, site of formation in the hypothalamus, excretion in the posterior lobe)

Q: glands (hormonal/not hormonal)
A: Exocrine glands are NOT hormonal glands. They always need an “outflowˮ (for ex. sweat glands).
Endocrines are the typical hormones. They are characteristic for transporting their hormones into the blood system. They need blood vessels in the vicinity (Nähe) .
 Autocrine and paracrine are not the typical hormonal cells, but only influence themselves or their neighbour.

Q: human - outside/inside
A: A human can be considered an oddly shaped donut. Round with a hole in the middle stretching from the top to the bottom.
The glands producing stomach acid are considered exocrine, since they lead to the stomach (which is considered outside of the body.

Q: menopause
A: In menopause the hormonal production changes (in females it diminishes). Also men experience a menopause. After menopause, the males get slight female characteristics and vice versa.

Q: peripheral glands
A: = glands outside of the brain that produce hormones
- Epiphysis (melatonin, circadian rhythm)
- Thyroid gland (Kehlkopf) (triiodthyronine (digestion), tetraiodthyronine (digestion), calcitonine (important for the bones))
- Parathyroid glands (parathormone)
- Adrenal gland (Nebenniere) (mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens)
- Pancreas (insulin, glucagon, both regulate blood sugar levels)
- Genitalia (estrogens, gestagens, androgens, testosterone) [placenta-progesternone, human chorionic gonadotropin]
                 -While estrogens and gestagens are commonly female hormones, androgens are typical for males. Nevertheless both have all three (first three) of the                                  hormones in varying concentrations.
…and several other hormone sources.

Q: digestive system - upper/lower
A: Upper digestive tract: oral cavity, oropharynx and laryngopharynx
Lower digestive tract: esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, digestive glands
upper/lower abdomen: border is transverse colon;
in lower abdomen: small and large intestine

Q: oral cavity
A: The oral cavity has borders (palate, floor of mouth, cheeks) and the oral vestibule (space between the lips and teeth).
It has a mucosa lining (moist area) which is “fuelledˮ by salivary glands (parotid, sublingual,
submandibular).
Inside of the saliva there are important enzymes, which are very important for digestion.

Q: the tongue
A: The tongue is important for tasting food (gustatory system in
combination with smelling / on top of the tongue), moving it in the oral cavity, but also for talking.
The tongue has striated muscle fibers (inner and outer muscles) in all directions, lingual papillae (taste, pain etc.)

Q: tongue - taste
A: It makes sense on how the prevalent regions responsible for sweet, sour, bitter, etc. are located. Tastes that indicate danger are more in the rear of the tongue where they are near the uvula and can induce a gag reflex.
Umami is the only taste which is registered all over the tongue. Spice is just pain registered by our pain receptors.

Q: teeth
A: The orientation is very symmetric in 2 arches (upper and lower).
A tooth in itself can be divided into 3 regions: crown, neck and root. The crown is mainly made out of enamel (hard outer layer), underneath we find the dentin and the cement (part of the root). Inside the tooth there is the dental pup, which is also the end of the alveolar nerves. The tooth sits in a mucous layer called gingiva (Zahnfleisch), everything above is the crown.
During our life we get 2 sets of teeth, primary (milk, 20 teeth) and secondary (permanent, 32 teeth)

Q: act of swallowing
A: The swallowing reflex can be divided into a voluntary and a involuntary part.
When swallowing, the upper airways need to close by soft palette (nothing can travel into nasal cavity) and lower airways need to be close by the epiglottis (Kehlkopfdeckel), to make sure no food gets into the lungs.

Q: esophagus
A: = Speiseröhre
The esophagus is a approx. 25 cm long muscular tube, which can be divided into two parts (thoracic and abdominal) and is attached to the pharynx (esophageal opening).
The esophagus has 3 constrictions
- superior: cricoid cartilage (Knorpelteil des Kehlkopfes)
- middle: aorta
- inferior: diaphragm (Zwerchfell)
The musculature starts cranial straited and becomes caudal smooth.

Q: abdominal cavity
A: The peritoneum has two layers, visceral and parietal.

Q: abdominal cavity - no/partial cover
A: The main role of mesentery: major vessels travel through.
Some organs are not covered in the peritoneum lining - eg. prostate in males, has no contact walls to the peritoneum.
Partial cover: caudal or dorsal
- caudal: bladder and big part of rectum, uterus in women
- dorsal (more complex): divide by organs that have developed at the location in early fetus and stay there (primary) and organs that developed at the location and move retro-peritoneal during development (secondary); primary example: kidneys; secondary example: pancreas

Q: stomach
A: The stomach is an intraperitoneal organ.
It has major and minor curvature (gives stomach its shape) and is able to transport fluids faster through the stomach with the help of mucous folds (gastric canal). The reason is because every ingested fluid diminishes the acidic power inside the stomach.
The gastric pits (outlet of stomach glands):
- helps digests food
- mucous cells (mucous) to make sure your stomach doesn't digest itself
- principal cells (pepsinogen) help digest proteins
- parietal cells (produce acid)