Title: Anatomy / Altfragen

Q: In which regions can you subdivide the human body?
A: - head;
- neck;
- trunk/torso: thorax, abdomen, pelvis;
- upper- & lower extremity

Q: What are the axes of the transversal plane?
A: - sagittal axis;
- transversal axis

Q: Which of the listed cell compartments are surrounded by a phospholipid double layer?
- mitochondrial
- centrosome
- actin
- nucleus
- endoplasmic reticulum
A: - mitochondrial
- nucleus
- endoplasmic reticulum

Q: Why do infants have brown fat?
A: Infants have brown fat because it helps them generate heat through non-shivering thermogenesis, which is crucial for maintaining body temperature after birth.

Q: What are the characteristics of diarthrosis?
A: - joint capsule: a two-layered capsule that encloses the joint, consisting of an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane.
- joint cavity: a space filled with synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint and reduces friction.
- articular cartilage: a layer of hyaline cartilage covering the ends of bones, allowing smooth movement.

Q: Which synarthrotic joints are syndesmotic?
A: Syndesmoses: is a type of synarthrotic (immovable) joints that connect two bones through fibrous connective tissue;
Examples:
- tibiofibular syndesmosis;
- radioulnar syndesmosis

Q: Explain diarthrosis!
A: Diathrosis: Freely movable synovial joints; consisting of:
- joint capsule;
- joint cavity;
- synovial fluid;
- cartilage;
- ligaments;
Examples:
- knee;
- shoulder;
- hip

Q: What kinds of cartilage exist?
A: 1. Hyaline Cartilage: This type is smooth & flexible. Found in joints (articular cartilage --> heals very bad), the nose, and the trachea. This type can ossify.
2. Elastic Cartilage: This type contains elastic fibres --> more flexible. Found in the outer ear (auricular cartilage) and the epiglottis.
3. Fibrous Cartilage: This type is though & dense. Found in the intervertebral disks & the meniscus.

Q: What types of synarthrosis exist?
A: - syndesmosis: fibrous joints connected by ligaments (e.g. distal tibiofibular joint).
- synchondrosis: cartilaginous joints connected by hyaline cartilage (e.g. epiphyseal plate, sternum-rib)
- synostosis: bony fusion where bones completely fuse (e.g. sutures of the skull in adults, epiphyseal line)

Q: Explain the curvature of the spine!
A: The curvature of the spine provides flexibility, shock absorption and balance:
- cervical: lordosis
- thoracic: kyphosis
- lumbar: lordosis
- sacral: kyphosis

Q: What are the characteristics of the fetal circulatory system?
A: Fetal circulation is a special blood flow system that allows the fetus to receive oxygen and nutrients from the placenta instead of the lungs, which are not yet functioning. After birth, when the baby takes its first breath, these shunts close and the circulation changes to the normal postnatal pattern.
ductus arteriosus: a vessel connecting the pulmonary artery to the descending aorta, allowing blood to bypass the lungs;
foramen ovale: an opening between the right and left atrium, enabling oxygenated blood to bypass the non-functional fetal lungs;
ductus venosus: a vessel that shunts oxygen-rich blood from the umbilical vein directly to the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver

Q: What are the layers of the heart?
A: endocardium: innermost layer, composed of endothelial cells, lining the heart chambers
myocardium: thick, muscular middle layer responsible for contraction and pumping blood
epicardium: outermost layer, also part of the pericardium, containing blood vessels and nerves

Q: Explain the valves of the heart!
A: The valves ensure unidirectional blood flow through the heart:
- atrioventricular valves (tricuspid right and mitral left): prevent backflow from ventricles to atrium during ventricular contraction
- semilunar valves (pulmonary right and aortic left): prevent backflow from arteries to ventricles during relaxation

Q: How does the conduction system of the heart work?
A: - high-pressure system: systemic circulation;
- low-pressure system: pulmonary circulation

Q: Which paranasal sinuses exist and where do they drain?
A: Air-filled extensions of the nasal cavity located in the cranial bones.
frontal sinus: drains into the middle nasal meatus via the frontonasal duct;
maxillary sinus: drains into the middle nasal meatus through the semilunar hiatus;
sphenoidal sinus: drains into the sphenoethmoidal recess above the superior nasal concha;
ethmoidal sinus: drains into the middle/superior nasal meatus

Q: Describe the cartilage of the larynx!
A: - thyroid cartilage: forms the Adam’s apple, protects vocal chords
- cricoid cartilage: ring-shaped, below the thyroid cartilage – provides support
- epiglottis: leaf-shaped, bends down to cover the laryngeal inlet during swallowing
- arytenoid cartilages: pyramid-shaped, anchor the vocal chords – control tension and position
- mucosa: respiratory epithelium

Q: Explain the morphology of the trachea
A: - tubular structure connecting the larynx with the bronchi;
- wall supported by C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings;
- starts at 6th/7th cervical vertebra – bifurcation at 4th thoracic vertebra;
- ~12 cm long

Q: Serous cavities characteristics & which exist?
A: Characteristics: Spaces that allow organs to move relative to each other;
Serous Membrane: The cavities are lined by a thin membrane consisting of 2 layers:
- Visceral layer;
- Parietal layer;
 Which:
- Pleural cavity: surrounds the lungs, lined by pleura;
- Pericardial cavity: surrounds the heart, lined by pericardium;
- Abdominal cavity: surrounds most digestive organs, lined by peritoneum

Q: Which blood type is the optimal blood receiver?
A: - AB

Q: Which blood type is most common?
A: The most common blood type is A (44%), followed closely by 0 (42%)

Q: Which blood cells do NOT have a nucleus?
A: - red blood cells;
- platelets

Q: Which hormonal gland produces parathormone?
A: - parathyroid

Q: Which glands produce which hormone?
A: - hypothalamus: regulatory hormones (GnRH, CRH, TRH, GHRH)
- pituitary (=hypophysis): GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, Prolactin, Oxytocin, ADH
- pineal: melatonin
- thyroid: T3, T4, calcitonin
- parathyroid: PTH
- pancreas: insulin, glucagon
- ovaries: oestrogen, progesterone
- testes: testosterone
- placenta: progesterone, hCG
- adrenal cortex: cortisol, aldosterone, androgens
- adrenal medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine

Q: What is parathormone and where is it produced?
A: Parathormone (PTH) is produced by the parathyroid glands, which are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. It regulates the calcium and phosphate metabolism by increasing calcium levels in the blood.

Q: Explain the walls structure of the intestinal tube!
A: mucosa: epithelium for absorption and secretion and thin muscle layer
submucosa: loose connective tissue with blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves
muscularis: two smooth muscle layers (circular and longitudinal) – for peristalsis
serosa: outermost layer – thin connective tissue

Q: What produces glucagon?
A: Glucagon is produced by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans) in the pancreas.

Q: Describe the location of the kidneys!
A: The kidneys are located retroperitoneally, behind the peritoneum. The left kidney is positioned caudally of the spleen, and the right kidney is caudally of the liver. They are bean-shaped organs, approximately 10 cm long, surrounded by the renal fascia, adipose capsule, and renal capsule.

Q: What are the longitudinal sections of the kidney?
A: - renal cortex: outer layer, containing the renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules;
- renal medulla: contains the medullary pyramids, where urine is concentrated;
- renal pelvis: funnel-shaped structure that collects urine and directs it to the ureter;
- nephron: the functional unit of the kidney, consisting of the renal corpuscle (glomerulus + Bowman's capsule) and tubules (proximal, loop of Henle, distal, collecting duct)

Q: What is the smallest functional part of the kidney?
A: The nephron is the smallest functional unit of the kidney, responsible for filtration, reabsorption, and urine formation. Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons.

Q: What is the difference between the male and female urethra?
A: Male Urethra:
- Length: ~20 cm.
- Parts: Divided into 3 parts:
- prostatic part.
- membranaceous part.
- spongious part.
- Curvatures: constant at the symphysis & flexible
Female Urethra:
- Length: Significantly shorter, approximately 3–5 cm.
- Position: Located directly ventral of the vagina.
- Opening: Opens into the vaginal vestibule.

Q: What are external genital organs in men?
A: - penis,
- scrotum

Question: What are external genital organs in men?
QType (0=kprim,1=mc,2=sc): 1
Q_1: penis
Q_2: scrotum
Q_3: testicles
Q_4: prostate
Q_5: seminal vesicles
Answers: 1 1 0 0 0

Q: What are the external female genitalia?
A: - vulva (labia minora and majora, clitoris, vaginal vestibule, Bartholin's and Skene's glands)
- mammary glands (breasts)

Q: What are the differences between the primary and secondary genital organs?
A: - primary genital organs: gonads (ovaries, testicles)
- secondary genital organs: efferent genital organs, outer genitalia, sexual characteristics apart from genitalia

Q: How many cranial nerves exist? Give three examples with their correct number!
A: The human body has 12 pairs of cranial nerves:
- I olfactory nerve
- II optic nerve
- III oculomotoric nerve
- IV trochlear nerve
- V trigeminal nerve
- VI abducens nerve
- VII facial nerve
- VIII vestibulocochlear nerve
- IX glossopharyngeal nerve
- X vagal nerve
- XI accessory nerve
- XII hypoglossal nerve

Q: Name two types of neuroglia!
A: astrocytes: support neurons, regulate the blood-brain barrier;
schwann-cells: form the myelin sheath around peripheral nerves

Q: Describe the meninges of the brain?
A: - dura mater (pachymeninx): outermost, tough fibrous layer, forming structures like the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli.
- arachnoid mater: middle, web-like layer, forming the subarachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
- pia mater: innermost, delicate layer that closely adheres to the brain and spinal cord.

Q: Name the parts of the vegetative nervous system and give examples for their different functions!
A: parts:
- sympathetic nervous system: activates “fight or flight” response
- parasympathetic nervous system: controls “rest and digest” functions
- enteric nervous system: intrinsic nervous system of the digestive tract.
functions:
- heart rate regulation: sympathetic increases the heart rate during stress, parasympathetic lowers the heart rate at rest
- digestive system control: sympathetic slows digestion during stress, parasympathetic stimulates digestion by increasing peristalsis and enzyme secretion

Q: What are the different types of fibres in the CNS?
A: - commissural fibres: between hemispheres,
- association fibres: within hemispheres,
- projection fibres,

Question: Which muscles are external eye muscles?
QType (0=kprim,1=mc,2=sc): 1
Q_1: ciliar muscle
Q_2: sphincter pupillae muscle
Q_3: superior oblique muscle
Q_4: lateral rectus muscle
Answers: 0 0 1 1

Q: What are the layers of the eye?
A: - Tunica fibrosa bulbi (Outer layer): sclera, cornea, and conjunctiva;
- Tunica vasculosa bulbi (Middle layer): choroidea, iris, and ciliary body;
- Tunica interna bulbi (Inner layer): retina

Q: What special cells exist in the retina?
A: - rod cells: detect dim light, black & white vision;
- cone cells: detect bright light and colour;
- bipolar cells: transmit signals from photoreceptors to ganglion cells;
- ganglion cells: axons from the optic nerve;

Q: Desribe the organ of equilibrium!
A: - 3 semicircular canals – cupula detects angular acceleration by movement of endolymph;
- 2 bulgings: utriculus and sacculus (utriculus for horizontal and sacculus for vertical linear acceleration through movement of otolithic membrane);
- deflection of ciliae by shear forces create stimulus;
- Information is transmitted via the vestibular nerve (part of Cranial Nerve VIII).

Q: Describe the cochlea!
A: - spiral-shaped organ in the inner ear for hearing;
- contains three chambers: scala vestibuli, scala media, scala tympani (fluid-filled);
- basilar membrane vibrates; organ of corti converts sound into nerve impulses, cochlear nerve sends signals to the brain for sound processing – different frequencies activate different parts of the basilar membrane;

Q: What nerve is connected to the organ of equilibrium?
A: - the vestibular nerve of the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)

Question: In which layer of the skin can you find Merkel-cells?
QType (0=kprim,1=mc,2=sc): 1
Q_1: epidermis
Q_2: dermis
Q_3: subcutis
Answers: 1 0 0

Q: What are the appendages of skin?
A: nails: protective coverings made of keratin, Consist of the nail body, nail wall, nail root, lunula, nail pocket, nail bed, and nail fold;
cutaneous glands: sweat glands (thermoregulation), scent glands, sebaceous (Talg) glands
hair: lanugo and terminal hair, connected to arrector pili muscle

Q: In which layer of the skin can you find the Meissner’s tactile corpuscles?
A: Meissner’s tactile corpuscles are found in the papillary layer of the dermis. They are responsible for light touch sensitivity and are most concentrated in fingertips, lips, and palms.

Q: What are the layers of the skin?
A: epidermis: stratified squamous epithelium;
dermis: high-fibre connective tissues with capillaries, nerves & cutaneous glands (sweat, sebaceaous, scent);
subcutis: loose connective tissue, fat, capillaries & nerves

Q: What parts of the cell have a phospholipid bilayer?
A: - cell membrane;
- nuclear envelope;
- mitochondria;
- endoplasmic reticulum;
- golgi apparatus;
- vesicles & lysosomes;

Q: Mention two staining methods to label fixed cells in culture!
A: - phalloidin staining: a toxin bound to a fluorochrome that specifically binds to actin filaments, allowing visualization of the cytoskeleton;
- DAPI staining: a fluorescent stain that binds strongly to DNA, making it useful for staining cell nuclei in fixed samples.

Q: What histochemical staining methods exist and what do they stain?
A: - Hematoxylin & Eosin (H&E): for general tissue stain – Hematoxylin stains nuclei blue, Eosin stains cytoplasm and matrix pink;
- Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS): stains carbohydrates, glycogen, mucins, basement membranes in bright magenta;
- Masson’s Trichrome: differentiates collagen (blue/green), muscle fibres (red), and nuclei (black)

Q: What is autofluorescence?
A: Autofluorescence is the intrinsic fluorescence emitted by cells or organelles when exposed to UV or blue light, caused by natural fluorophores like collagen, elastin, and NAD(P)H.

Q: Mention three light microscopic imaging methods that can be used to analyse living
cells!
A: - Bright Field Microscopy: the simplest form of light microscopy, where light passes through the sample, allowing basic visualization of cell structures;
- Phase Contrast Microscopy: enhances contrast in transparent samples, living cells without staining;
- Interference Contrast Microscopy (DIC - Differential Interference Contrast): high-contrast images of unstained cells by using optical phase shifts

Q: What light microscopy imaging techniques exist?
A: - bright field microscopy: using transmitted light;
- phase contrast microscopy: enhances contrast in transparent samples by phase shift;
- interference contrast microscopy: differential interference to highlight structures;
- confocal microscopy: captures optical sections for 3D imaging;
- fluorescence microscopy: uses fluorophores to visualise specific molecules

Q: Describe the function and structure of a light microscope!
A: - uses glass lense to focus light;
- magnifies up to 1500x;
- different types: bright field, phase contrast, fluorescence, etc.;
- used for biological samples (cells, tissues, microorganisms);
- application: histology, microbiology, cell biology

Q: What is the main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
A: - Prokaryotes: Lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria);
- Eukaryotes: Contain a distinct nucleus and various specialized organelles (e.g., human cells);

Q: Distinguish between Histology and Histochemistry
A: - Histology: The study of the microscopic structure of tissues;
- Histochemistry: The identification and distribution of chemical compounds within tissues using specific staining reactions^.

Q: Which microscopic method primarily depends on the use of heavy metals?
A: - Electron Microscopy: uses heavy metals like lead or uranium for contrast;
- (Specific silver-staining techniques in light microscopy also use heavy metals)

Q: What is the difference between Protozoa and Metazoa?
A: - Protozoa: Single-celled animal-like organisms;
- Metazoa: Multicellular animals

Q: Describe the components of the Waldeyer's tonsillar ring
A: A circular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in the pharynx.
Consists of:
- tubal tonsil;
- palatal tonsil;
- lingual tonsil^^.

Q: Differentiate between primary and secondary lymphatic organs
A: - Primary: Where lymphocytes are produced/mature (e.g. bone marrow);
- Secondary: Where immune responses are initiated (e.g. lymph nodes, spleen)

Q: Which organ is responsible for producing bile (=Galle)?
A: The liver (the gallbladder only stores and concentrates it)^

Q: What is the difference between tissue hormones and endocrine hormones?
A: - Endocrine: Travel through the bloodstream to distant target organs^.
- Tissue (paracrine): Act locally on cells (in immediate nearness)

Q: What does it mean if an organ is extraperitoneal? Give an example.
A: These are organs located outside the peritoneal cavity^^. Examples include the kidneys (retroperitoneal) or the urinary bladder (subperitoneal)^^^^

Q: Which muscle is specifically relevant for eye accommodation (= Nah- & Ferneinstellung)?
A: The ciliary muscle (M. ciliaris)

Q: Which muscle type is responsible for "accumulation" (storage) in the body?
A: Sphincter muscles (e.g., the urethral sphincter for urine storage).

Q: What is the anatomical opposite of "Dexter"?
A: Sinister (meaning left)^.

Q: Which blood cells do have a nucleus
A: - white blood cells;